Deep sea mining is attracting increasing attention as a potential source of critical minerals, but serious questions remain about its viability, governance, and impact. In this session, deep sea mining experts Jo Feldman and Lisa Koch will examine recent developments in this emerging sector. They will assess how it compares with land-based mining from a regulatory, commercial, and ESG perspective. as deep sea mining approaches a pivotal shift from exploration to exploitation, it is timely to explore whether it is ready to meet the standards set by land-based mining. The presentation will contrast the evolving regulatory regime for deep sea mining, including in international waters where the 'sponsoring' state may be geographically removed from the extraction activity, against the more mature and locally accountable frameworks for land-based operations. It will also consider the commercial landscape, including licensing models, royalty arrangements, and the nature of relationships required between operators and state and non-state actors. Consideration will be given to the legal and commercial risks facing investors, operators, and commodity purchasers, including the challenge of bankability for projects that are largely untested. The geopolitical overlay-especially in light of rising sovereign risk and strategic competition between the US and other major powers-adds further complexity. From an ESG perspective, the session will critically assess whether technological advances can meaningfully address the environmental and social risks associated with ocean-floor extraction. It will also raise the issue of social licence, which in international waters must extend to a global community, as resources are intended to benefit 'all humankind'. By drawing on decades of experience in land-based mining, the discussion will offer grounded insights into whether deep sea mining can meet the same standards of accountability, sustainability, and benefit-sharing that the industry has worked hard to develop on land. This topic covers various conference themes, including: . mineral economics, geopolitics and the global supply chain . circularity and ESG . discovery and development . showcasing new technologies.